Dorte Skot-Hansen
The local profile of the public library—defined from the center or locally based ?
This article presents the results of a Danish research project on the role of the local library, based on three case-studies in three different local communities in Denmark. It reveals that, although they are all public libraries, each may have a very different profilt. In other words they may be very different as regards how they interact with the local community and what kinds of issues they choose to give priority in their activities. An analytical model is presented showing four major roles of the local public library: a center for knowledge, a center for information, a center for social welfare and a cultural center, all four roles related to different trends in society. Using this model in an analysis based on both qualitative and quantitative data, the complex relationship between the local library and the local community is analyzed and discussed. The conclusion discusses the huge challenge for local public libraries in striking a balance between being a point of entry to the global computerized "village" and a personal marketplace on local premisses.

Geir Vestheim
Having Habermas and Bourdieu as helpers —
A theory for an analysis of cultural policy with special reference to libraries
This article discusses the concept 'publicness'/'public sphere' (Öffentlichkeit) as developed by Jürgen Habermas and the concept 'social field' (champ) created by Pierre Bourdieu and the relationship between them. For pragmatic purposes, etg. in studies on cultural policy and public library questions, the theories behind these concepts may be used to understand the role of the public library in paramount social contexts. Habermas' concept of the public sphere as developed since the 60's represents the most abstract and the most extensive arena of communication and discourse in today's society. Cultural institutions like the public library are part of this social communication. At the same time libraries are constituting a specific social field (champ) with its own professional etho and rules. The social field of the libraries may then be regarded to be a kind of 'sub publicness' which is part of the paramount public sphere as defined by Habermas and his successors. In the character of cultural institution the public library communicates on both levers: There is an intrisic communication going on within the boundaries of the social field of librarianship but the public library is also, at least in principle, a communicator in the ongoing debate of the general public sphere.
    Therefore, from a pragmatic point of view, the theories of Habermas and Bourdieu may be combined if not integrated in analysises of cultural policy in general or of library policy in particular.

Ragnar Audunson
The development and testing of a model of causality for the use of public libraries (with a stepwise digression)
This article deals with the study of user-behaviour, a classical theme within library- and information science. One of the major problems in user-studies hitherto has been the lack of conceptual and theoretically reflected models. This weakness has also led to a relatively primitive use of statistics. The predictive models of Douglas Zweizig and George D'Elia are outlined. These contributions test the predictive power of models consisting of variables describing individual attributes on the one hand and the relationship between the user/non-user and the library on the other hand. Although useful, the value of purely predictive models is limited. In order to deepen our understanding of library use, causal models are necessary. Based on the works of Zweizig and D'Elia, a causal model is developed and tested. The variables included in the model are gender, education, reading, and the use of other cultural institutions (galleries and museums). The model is tested on a vast corpus of data from a national study of public library use undertaken in 1988.

Hans Martin Fagerli
Now computing has become history...
A review of Evald, Pierre: Information technology in public libraries—the first ten years
The book reviewed is the first mapping and analysis ever conducted in the Nordic countries on the history of how the new information technology was introduced and implemented in libraries, in this case Danish public libraries, in the 1980's. The report, written by Pierre Evald of the Aalborg branch of the Royal School of Librarianship, is very reader-friendly, and is recommended not least for busy people who want a quick introduction to the very important issue of IT in libraries. But the model used in the report, and the objective validity of the answers provided by the persons interviewed, are questioned by the reviewer. The reviewer makes two further critical points. Firstly, the fact that the libraries chosen for analysis all are characterized as being the "avantgarde" of the public libraries in Denmark. Secondly, the tendency to defend the system already implemented is not questioned in the report, despite the fact that the systems are causing stress, for instance. Never the less the reviewer makes a plea for similar studies, not least in Norway, and for the early development in the 70's to be included in the history of IT in public libraries.

Øivind Friisvold
Sunpower from the south—Danish public libraries: Dissolution or Development?
A review of Marianne Andersson´s and Dorte Skot-Hansen´s
The local library: Development or dissolution
This review deals with a Danish analysis of the development of the public libraries in Denmark, and their role in a society in which a rather homogenous culture is dissolving into many subcultures which cross-cut one other, resulting in a rather chaotic concept of culture. This development, together with the still increasing global entertainment industry and political/ideological decentralization, forces the public libraries in Denmark to question their current role in society today, especially in relation to the local communities in which they are placed. This general statements are based on a nationwide survey of the role of the public library. It makes interesting reading, but the most revealing part of the book consists of three case-studies on the role of the local public library in three Danish communities These case-studies show how the close relationship between the library and the local community is defined and realized in very different ways from one local community to the next, according to their specific characteristics.
The book is very highly recommended as a good example of the fact that library research is more than information science.

Nr 2/3 1995

Bendik Rugaas
The National Library and the Public libraries
In his opening speech to the conference in february 95 in Mo i Rana, Norway on the relationship between national library and public libraries, Bendik Rugaas outlined the ambition for the new National Library in Norway. The National Library is going to be the foremost source of knowledge on Norway and Norwegians in a very active way. Based on one of the most advanced acts of legal deposit concerning all published material in Norway, the National Library has a potensial capacity to develop a new library-concept, a workshop-library. It affords firstly a fully developed network within Norway and the rest of the world and secondly maintains the principle of free charge for use of the library in order to ensure access for all who wish to use the national library as a national knowledge-workshop.

Irina Klim
Folkebiblioteker i Rusland som brugere af Nationalbiblioteker
"National" og "folke-" er to relativt nye og omdiskuterede begreber i russisk biblioteksvæsen. Det hænger nøje sammen med de store samfundsmæssige ændringer, også indenfor biblioteksvæsenet, som følge af Sovjetunionens sammenbrud og etableringen af det nye Rusland. I Sovjetperioden drejede det sig om Stat- og republik-biblioteker på den ene side og masse-biblioteker på den anden side. Al biblioteksdrift blev styret central" fra Lenin-biblioteket i Moskva og for den russiske federations vedkommende fra Saltykov-Schredrin biblioteket i Leningrad, senere St. Petersborg.
    Når man ser bort fra den ideologiske styring i alt samfundsliv i Sovjettiden, så var der mange biblioteksfaglige kvaliteter i det sovjetiske system. Der blev sørget for en ensartet klassifikation og katalogisering, en vejledning i samlingsopbygning og vejledende bibliografier, som gav hele Sovjetunionen et meget sammenhængende bibliotekssystem, som kunne samarbejde både internt og med resten af verden. Selvom der ikke var plads til lokale og regionale initiativer, så var der en ensartethed i biblioteksenhederne, som havde stor betydning for samarbejdet i hele landet.
    Efter Sovjetunionens sammenbrud har de enkelte nationale enheder fået frihed til at udvikle deres egne biblioteksystemer. Det giver plads til lokal kreanvitet, men når ressourcerne i mange tilfælde mangler, så kan det føre til at bibliotekerne faktisk får en dårligere professionel standard end under Sovjetsystemet. Det er vigtigt ikke at være nostalgisk, men samtidig se på de professionelle værdier, som det tidligere system havde og bruge dem i den fremtidige biblioteksudvikling i Rusland .

Virginia Betancourt-Valverde
Nationalbibliotekets rolle i udviklingen af et moderne folkebibliotekssystem i Venezuela
Venezuela har heft et relativt stabilt demokrati i de sidste 34 år. Som led i opbygningen af et demokratisk samfund gik en gruppe kvinder i gang i 1960 med at samle bøger ind til en såkaldt bog-bank, der kunne bruges som en form for bibliotekstjeneste med levering af lærebøger og børnebøger. Det startede som en privat organisation, men efterhånden fik det støtte fra det offentlige. Samtidig med oprettelsen af bogbanken blev der etableret et mønsterbibliotek i Caracas med tilhørende bogbusser, der betjente forskellige grupper, ikke mindst i fattige bydele. Næste skridt i udviklingen af biblioteksvæsenet i det unge venezuelanske demokrati var etablering af et skolebibliotekssystem i den nye hovedstad Guayana. Det bestod både af en central teknisk afdeling og en række biblioteker på de enkelte skoler i byen.
    I løbet af 1970erne blev der etableret et nationalbibliotek som bl. a fik til hovedopgave at udvikle et nationalt folkebibliotekssystem med udgangspunkt i erfaringerne fra Caracas´s mønster-bibliotek . I alle 22 delstater i Venezuela er der efterhånden udviklet et veludbygget folkebibliotekssystem efter en fire-trins model, hvor man har startet med bygninger, faguddannet personale og en grundsamling. Som andet trin har man udviklet samfundsinformation og særlige tilbud for børn. For det tredje er man begyndt på udarbejdelse af bibliografier vedr. materiale fra den pågældende stat og mikrofilming af statens aviser. Endelig har man for det fjerde begyndt at bruge bibliotekerne i forbindelse med kampen mod fattigdommen. Således er Venezuela blevet et centralt land i forbindelse med biblioteksudvikling og bibliotekernes rolle i samfundet i Sydamerika generelt idet man har taget initiativ til samarbejde i hele den sydamerikanske region.

Ezekiel K Kaungamno
Om afrikanske National- og folkebiblioteker - med særlig hensyn til Tanzania og nogle generelle blik på forholdene i Øst- og Sydafrika
Artiklen tager sit udgangspunkt i en diskussion af forskellige definitioner af henholdsvis folkebiblioteker og nationalbiblioteker.
Såvel folkebiblioteker som nationalbiblioteker har en meget anderledes rolle i de afrikanske lande, i udviklingslande i det hele taget i forhold til den udviklede vestlige verden. Et nationalt biblioteksvæsen åben for offentligheden kan spille en stor rolle i afrikanske lande, hvor uddannelsessystemerne er svagt udbyggede, spe. på videregående skole-niveau. Bibliotekerne kan fungere som en videreuddannelses-institution udenom den formelle uddannelsesorganisation.
    Nationalbibliotekerne i de afrikanske lande kan således fungere som den ledende kraft i udviklingen af et nationalt biblioteksvæsen. Det indbefatter meget mere end blot at være pligt-afleveringsbibliotek og center for nationalbibliografi. Det omfatter også vejledning i lokal biblioteksopbygning, fjernlån på nationalt og internationalt niveau og ikke mindst uddannelse og efteruddannelse af bibliotekspersonale.
    Realiseringen af disse mål, som blev formuleret i Daar es Salaam på en Unesco-konference for biblioteker i Syd- og Centralafrika i 1985, hænger sammen med løsningen af en række ressourcemæssige problemer m.h.t. mangel på kapital, formulerede informations-"policies", mangel på edb-netværk, manglende bibliografisk kontrol på forskningspublikationer, spe. grå litteratur m.m.

Johan Koren
National Libraries in the Nordic countries and their relationship to Public libraries
When you look upon the ways in which national libraries are organized in the Nordic countries, you will see a great variety of different versions or models for national libraries. Based on an extensive survey, the national libraries and their relationship to the librarysystem as a whole in each Nordic country are described and analyzed.
    The national libraries have to cope with four main issues:

- need for collecting and preserving documents of national interest and importance

- bibliographic needs: creation of and access to records of publications - need for access to information and publications

- need for management and coordination of library services in the country as a whole

Three kinds of "philosophies" for the national libraries in the nordic countries are extracted from the survey, the first one emphasizing the national library as the largest library in the country, but without any coordinating and leading position. The second "philosophy" places the national library as the spider in a web, e.g. the rest of the library system in the country and therefore pulled in various directions by the different library sectors in the country. The third philosophy views the national library as being the leading and coordinating library on a national level bridging over different types of libraries in the country.

Lone Hansen
Problems of inter-urban loans between Public and Academic libraries 
This article summarizes a report on problems with inter-library loans between public- and academic libraries, made by a working-group appointed by the Common Council for Public and Academic Libraries, published in 1994. In total the cooperation between public and academic libraries concerning inter-library loans functions reasonably. The inter-library loans between the two types of libraries amounts only a minor part of the total loan-activity in public libraries (0,71%) and a relative small part of the activities in the academic libraries (11%). One can registrate a little growth in the number of inter-library loans, but it is still only a small part of the total loans. Besides this there are great individual differences between the different academic libraries in their relative part-taking of the inter-library loans.
    The report tells that around a third part of the libraries have problems with the inter-library loans, especially concerning the following three issues:

- delivery of materials
- ways of calling for materials
- packing of materials

The national library service is asked to make the libraries more conscious about these three problems in order to come up with some kind of solution.
    The working-group will not recommend any kind of charge of this kind of inter-library loans due to the relatively small scale of activity. In practice the academic libraries can easily combine their obligations towards the academic institutions and the public in general.

Barbra Thomas
Public Libraries as users of research libraries and vice versa
This paper gives the background for the establishment of a national repository library for Swedish public libraries. The growth of the book stock had run out of control. In order to encourage local public libraries to discard unfrequent material a repository library was established in Umeå. The function of the repository library is to make available by loan books older than 20 years. This service is offered to public libraries as well as university libraries. The paper also focuses on the changing conditions. The increasing level of education will force public libraries and academic libraries to a closer cooperation. It is no longer possible to divide the population into academic library customers and public library customers. Libraries in the public sector should be regarded as a common good and serve the whole population. Finally, the article discusses the desirability of a national information infrastructure and the need for strategic planning.

Even Flood
New carriers of information
This is an overview about some of the aspects of the information society and consequences and challenges for librarians. Four issues are adressed:

1. Production and storing of data: Publishing is much easier today, all one needs is a computer and a net connection. But there are problems in evaluation and authentication of data when everyone is a publisher. Storing of data is a problem when standards charge.

2. Transfer of data. What kind of service the libraries can give depends upon the capacity of the lines.

3. Presentation of data. Here are the greatest challenges of the information age. On one hand hypertext and multimedia are new ways of searching and presenting data which gives possibilities we have not had before. On the other hand one is tied to a computer and screen and does not have the freedom of movement and place a paper medium provides.

4. Sharing of data. Use of electronic post, newsgroups and postlists gives new opportunities. Librarians can be connected in networks where knowledge and experience is exchanged.

Steen Bille Larsen
Cooperation between the National Library and Public Libraries -
from distributing data to distributing documents
The article copes with one of the major taske, which the Danish Royal Library is responsible for as a national library consisting in producing parts of the national bibliography and contributing to producing bibliographies for different disciplines and subjects. After introduction of the modem computer technology bibliographic work is to a great extent a question of reusing bibliographic posts although different interpretations of formats delimit the actual recycling of bibliographic posts.
    By using the newest computer technology giving the possibility of digitalizing the documents and storing them on the "Net", the main issue for the national libraries changes from delivering the bibliographic catalogue covering all documents published in the nation to delivering the documents themselves through a national server.
    In this way one moves towards the realisation of an international virtual library with an international net of national library-servers. It gives a great opportunity to combine the human interface of the local public library and the global virtual library. But if this project shall succeed it demands that all the way from the smallest library to the central server you have the technology and competence needed to make the documents accessible for all interested users and thus making the new virtual library a democratic institution.

Antti Soini
The Finnish national network for libraries  
In mid-eighties a national plan for automation of academic libraries was launched in Finland. The basic idea was to install similar local library systems in all university libraries, to use the academic network, FUNET, for communications and to create union databases to provide data services to the libraries. This big project was financed by the the Ministry of Education and The Automation Unit of Finnish Research Libraries (TKAY) in the Ministry was given the responsibility of the project. In 1993 the basic project was finished: the VTLS system was customized for Finnish language and data, 18 local systems installed (used by 24 libraries) and the union catalogue database of these libraries was established.
    Further, in 1993 the Automation Unit was reorganized and became a part of the National Library of Finland, Helsinki University Library. TKAY was given the responsibility to run and develop the central services. The move from the Ministry to the National Library also changed the role of LINNEA from an academic to a national network for libraries. This concept was further encouraged by the new databases where different types of libraries participate as data providers.
    The co-ordination of library automation started with the academic LINNEA network, which now is rapidly becoming a national network for all libraries. The integration of different types of libraries and different types of systems is enhanced by the development of standards and equivalent software as well as the new role of TKAY as a part of the national library.

Nr 1 1995

RagnarAudunson
Behovet for institutionel lederskab: Forandringsprosesser i folkebibliotek -
et komparativt projekt
Artikkelen opsummerer et prosjekt som analyserer forandringsprosesser og forandringshåndtering i folkebibliotek. Prosjektet bygger på institusjonell teori. Det betyr at reformer og forandring ikke uten videre kan forklares med utgangspunkt i rasjonelle mål/middel-betraktninger. Organisatoriske normer og standarder er noe som gir mening, ikke bare redskaper som kan byttes ut med andre. Ikke minst i virksomheter hvor mål/middel-relasjoner er uklare, styres vi av normer og standarder som vi tar som gitte fakta. Bibliotekarer organiserer sine samlinger som de gjør eller tar i bruk målorienterte planleggingsmetoder rett og slett fordi det er det en god bibliotekar eller en moderne offentlig ansatt gjør. I dagens samfunn mottar bibliotek og bibliotekarer normer og standarder fra henholdsvis sine politiske og administrative omgivelser og fra det profesjonelle feltet. Normene er ofte i konflikt med hverandre. Det profesjonelle feltet legger tradisjonelt vekt på demokratisk og lik tilgang og på faglige normer for kvalitet, som ikke uten videre passer med en etterspørsels- og markedsorientert tilnærming. De politiske omgivelsene legger nå mere vekt på normer som springer ut av en markedsorientert tenkning. Artikkelens hovedspørsmål kan formuleres som følger: Normer og standarder fra det profesjonelle feltet har til nå i stor grad styrt og strukturert utviklingen av folkebibliotek. Bestemmer feltets normer fremdeles hvordan forandring møtes og håndteres, eller ser feltet ut til å miste sin strukturerende evne.
    Projektet identifiserer en etterspørsel blant bibliotekarer etter institusjonell ledelse i betydningen ivaretagelse av og forsvar for bibliotekenes identitet og integritet.

Elisabeth Gloppe
The School-library in Norway - An historical overview
The article gives an overview of the more than 150-year old history of Norwegian school-libraries. Throughout this history political decisions, in the form of national curricula and laws and individual engagement have given meaning and direction to the school-library. The time from 1850 to 1900 is characterized as the pioneering period. During this period the place of literature in school-libraries was first and foremost justified by the practice it gave to readingskill. From the beginning of this century individuals well-known the wider history of education like Nordal Rolfsen and Anna Sethne became trendsetters in the development of school-libraries. The former stressed the importance of literature's influence on ethics and national pride. The latter stressed the importance of stimulating reading and the pupil's own activity in learning.
    The first Library Act in Norway was passed in 1935. School-libraries were mentioned in the Act. It stated it was compulsory for every rural school to have a school-library. In 1985 the school-library became a part of the Primary and Secondary Education Act. The new and extended concept of a school-library from then onwards covers all educational material which supplies information. According to this new concept, the function of school-libraries is not only to aid the development of culture in general, but their pedagogical function is stressed as well. Up to the 1970 school-libraries were first and foremost used for borrowing books for leisure reading. Now the use of school-libraries as a learning centre and integrated part of all teaching is stressed.
    The Government has up to 1985 supported the school-libraries's book-budget. After that school budgets have been decentralized to each municipality. How the school-libraries function in different schools will therefore partly reveal how schools and town councils define the concemts of teaching and knowledge. There are specialist course programmes in school-librarianship at certain colleges for education, but most school-libraries still lack competent personell and resources.

Johan Koren
The Librarian and the Professionalisation Cycle: A Comparison of U.S. and Scandinavian Library Educator's Views on Image and Status
Ambivalence about the professional status of the librarian has abounded in library literature since its inception. Librarians have confidently stated that their occupation is a profession, and then almost in the same breath complain that the image of librarianship is not what it deserves. Whether or not the actual image is as bad as it is painted, it is clear that the profession presents a picture of ambivalent insecurity in its literature. Part of the problem appears to be grounded in disagreement about the definition of profession and what it takes for an occupation to become a profession . Using a cyclical model of professionalisation, this research looked at the relationship between image building in the United States and Scandinavia were asked to describe what they saw as an appropriate professional image in terms of professional title, capability, behaviour patterns and desired status. The result was not very dissimilar in content between the two regions. Both described capabilities and behaviour considerably broader than in the traditional view. The biggest difference came in the US majority's choice of a combination with information in the professional title, while the Scandinavian majority considered that librarian was still appropriate. It would appear that an information paradigm consciously or unconsciously underlies the US educator's understanding of the profession, while the Nordic tradition of the cultural role of the librarian continues to influence the thinking of their Scandinavian counterparts.

John-Arild Johannesen, Johan Olaisen and Olav Djupvik
Information as a resource: ways of evaluating the quality of information
This article discusses the technical and cognitive quality factors that determine the demand for information from commercial databases. Design quality, product quality and delivery quality are the factors that influence the technical usefullness of databases. Recent investigations have shown that poorly designed systems often prevent users from taking appropriate advantage of information stored in databases. In addition to this problem, users often have little experience in retrieving information from databases. This means that there is an obvious need for simple, menu-driven systems that allow intuitive use.
    The key quality measures for cognitive authority are reliability and competence. The database user must have faith in the accuracy and truthfulness of available information and the competence of those providing information. This article concludes that technical quality factors are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the acceptance of a database. In addition to these issues, quality factors and the cognitive authority of the information provider are important determinants of user acceptance.

Helge Høivik
Thought, language and machines - A critical essay
The article reviews the doctoral dissertation made by the danish researcher Niels Ole Finnemann titled: "Thought, language and machines - A theoretical analysis of the symbolic properties". A discussion is made on the main thesis of the book, saying that the core of the properties of the computer is laying in the unique informationel notation system, which can be characterized as a new kind of language. In contrast to speaking and writing, the informationel notationsystem has no semantic content in its own right. Being empty in a semantic sense from the beginning, it is possible for the computer to integrate many kinds of semantic regimes.
    The dissertation is an important contribution to the scandinavian discussion on the role of the modern information technology, especially due to its linking the technical discussion within the computer- and information science and the discussion on the cultural and social aspects of the computer within humanities and social sciences.